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Ecosystem services
Humankind benefits in a multitude of ways from ecosystems. Collectively, these benefits are becoming known as ecosystem services. Ecosystem services are regularly involved in the provisioning of clean drinking water and the decomposition of wastes. While scientists and environmentalists have discussed ecosystem services implicitly for decades, the ecosystem services concept itself was popularized by the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) in the early 2000s.〔Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA). 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well-Being: Synthesis (). Island Press, Washington. 155pp.〕 This grouped ecosystem services into four broad categories: ''provisioning'', such as the production of food and water; ''regulating'', such as the control of climate and disease; ''supporting'', such as nutrient cycles and crop pollination; and ''cultural'', such as spiritual and recreational benefits. To help inform decision-makers, many ecosystem services are being assigned economic values.
==History==
While the notion of human dependence on Earth’s ecosystems reaches to the start of homo sapiens’ existence, the term 'natural capital' was first coined by E.F. Schumacher in 1973 in his book ''Small is Beautiful'' 〔Schumacher, E.F (1973). ''Small is Beautiful: A Study of Economics As If People Mattered''.〕''.'' Recognition of how ecosystems could provide more complex services to mankind date back to at least Plato (c. 400 BC) who understood that deforestation could lead to soil erosion and the drying of springs.〔Daily, G.C. 1997. Nature’s Services: Societal Dependence on Natural Ecosystems. Island Press, Washington. 392pp.〕 Modern ideas of ecosystem services probably began with Marsh in 1864 〔Marsh, G.P. 1864 (1965). Man and Nature. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York. 472pp.〕 when he challenged the idea that Earth’s natural resources are unbounded by pointing out changes in soil fertility in the Mediterranean. His observations and cautions passed largely unnoticed at the time. It was not until the late 1940s that three key authors – Henry Fairfield Osborn, Jr,〔Osborn, F. 1948. Our Plundered Planet. Little, Brown and Company: Boston. 217pp.〕 William Vogt,〔Vogt, W. 1948. Road to Survival. William Sloan: New York. 335pp.〕 and Aldo Leopold 〔Leopold, A. 1949. A Sand County Almanac and Sketches from Here and There. Oxford University Press, New York. 226pp.〕 – awakened and promoted recognition of human dependence on the environment.
In 1956, Paul Sears 〔Sears, P.B. 1956. "The processes of environmental change by man." ''In'': W.L. Thomas, editor. Man’s Role in Changing the Face of the Earth (Volume 2). University of Chicago Press, Chicago. 1193pp.〕 drew attention to the critical role of the ecosystem in processing wastes and recycling nutrients. In 1970, Paul Ehrlich and Rosa Weigert called attention to "ecological systems" in their environmental science textbook 〔Ehrlich, P.R. and A. Ehrlich. 1970. Population, Resources, Environment: Issues in Human Ecology. W.H. Freeman, San Francisco. 383pp. - see p.157〕 and “the most subtle and dangerous threat to man’s existence... the potential destruction, by man’s own activities, of those ecological systems upon which the very existence of the human species depends”. The term "environmental services" was introduced in a 1970 report of the ''Study of Critical Environmental Problems'',〔Study of Critical Environmental Problems (SCEP). 1970. Man’s Impact on the Global Environment. MIT Press, Cambridge. 319pp.〕 which listed services including insect pollination, fisheries, climate regulation and flood control. In following years, variations of the term were used, but eventually ‘ecosystem services’ became the standard in scientific literature.〔Ehrlich, P.R. and A. Ehrlich. 1981. Extinction: The Causes and Consequences of the Disappearance of Species. Random House, New York. 305pp.〕
The ecosystem services concept keeps expanding and includes socio-economic and conservation objectives, which are discussed below. A complete history of the concepts and terminology of ecosystem services as of 1997, can be found in Daily's book "Nature’s Services: Societal Dependence on Natural Ecosystems".〔
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